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SAUSSURE : BAHASA SEBAGAI FAKTA SOSIAL

Menjelang akhir abad XIX - rupanya semuanya tampak baik untuk waktu itu, dan sebagian masih tetap meyakinkan untuk masa sekarang - persamaan bahasa dengan biologi telah banyak ditolak. Hal ini menimbulkan kesulitan pemahaman bahasa sebagai suatu disiplin akademis: Jika bahasa bukan species hidup, dalam arti apakah bahasa merupakan "barang" yang dapat diselidiki? Orang awam senang saja bahwa bahasa Perancis merupakan sesuatu yang dapat dipelajari, yang memiliki perangkat tertentu dan dalam beberapa hal sama atau serupa dengan bahasa Inggris tapi dalam hal lain berbeda; tapi bila bahasa Perancis suatu barang dan barang itu merupakan sesuatu yang aneh. Sudah jelas bahwa bahasa itu bukan benda konkrit seperti meja ataupun seperti hamparan daratan yang disebut Perancis. Anda tidak dapat melihat ataupun mendengar bahasa Perancis itu. Yang dapat Anda dengar ialah Gaston si pelayan berkata "pas si bete ...": Anda dapat melihat sebaris cetakan huruf dalam selembar surat kabar "Le Monde”; tapi bagaimanakah kita dapat mengartikan suatu wujud yang disebut bahasa Perancis yang berada di belakang beribu-ribu fenomena konkrit yang dapat diamati seperti dalam dua contoh tadi? Macam wujud apakah bahasa itu? Paradigma biologi menunjukkan hubungan antara bicara dan bahasa Perancis seperti hubungan antara Wortel (carrot) tertentu dan species wortel: Dan sampai dengan ditolaknya pendapat paradigma biologi ini, pendapat seperti ini sudah dianggap memuaskan – walaupun orang hanya dapat melihat atau makan wortel, orang menilainya cukup penting untuk membicarakan species wortel dan membahas, katakanlah, hubungan genetikanya dengan species ubi-ubian. Tapi pertama kali biologi sudah terlempar ke sisi jalan; yang kedua, orang sudah berpendapat bahwa paradigma tersebut tidak dapat memberikan jawaban yang lengkap terhadap pembahasan yang sedang berlangsung. Dalam biologi, karena species merupakan abstraksi, paling tidak individu species tersebut merupakan barang yang konkrit, maka beberapa macam barang lebih dapat mudah dirasa daripada wortel. Tapi analogi linguistik terhadap individu biologi adalah idiolek; dan ini hampir semua, bila tidak keseluruhannya, sama seperti abstraksi dari konsep yang luas tentang bahasa. Kita tidak dapat mendengar idiolek Gaston sebagai suatu wujud; kita hanya dapat mendengar contoh-contoh idiolek tersebut – komentar yang ia ucapkan kalau ia melihat uang tip yang kita tinggalkan, dan contoh idiolek itu tidak mempunyai kesejajaran dalam biologi. Jadi walaupun tidak dianggap sebagai masalah tertentu oleh ahli bahasa abad XIX, pertanyaan “Bagaimanakah pengertian wujud yang disebut bahasa atau dialek yang mendasari realita yang dapat dirasakan daripada ujaran-ujaran tertentu? Tetap terbuka pada masa itu. Orang yang menjawabnya yang dapat memuaskan para ahli yang semasa dengannya serta para ahli dewasa ini ialah sarjana Swiss: Ferdinand de Saussure.

Mongin Ferdinand de Saussure, nama lengkapnya, dilahirkan di Jenewa pada tahun 1857, anak keluarga kaum Huguenot yang pindah dari Lorraine selama perang agama di Perancis akhir abad XVI. Walaupun orang sekarang menganggap Saussure sebagai orang pertama yang memberikan definisi tentang pengertian yang disebut linguistik sinkronis – yaitu kajian tentang bahsa sebagai system yang terdapat pada waktu tertentu, yang dibedakan dengan linguistik historis (yang untuk membedakannya Saussure menamakan linguistik diakronis) yang bagi para ahli semasanya merupakan satu-satunya pendekatan yang ada untuk mempelajari bahwa waktu itu – pada masa hidupnya tidak dimaksudkan untuk menjadikannya terkenal. Saussure mendapat didikan sebagai ahli bahasa kuno, dan berhasil ketika masih berusia muda menerbitkan buku yang berjudul Memoire sur lesysteme primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-europeennes (1878). Buku itu diterbitkan beberapa minggu setelah ulang tahunnya yang ke XXI: Ketika ia masih menjadi mahasiswa di Jerman. Buku tersebut merupakan salah satu dasar rekonstruksi bahasa Proto Indo-Eropa. Saussure memberikan kuliah Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes di Paris dari tahun 1881 sampai tahun 1891, sebelum ia kembali mengajar di Jenewa, semua penerbitannya, dan hampir semua kuliah yang diberikannya, seluruh karyanya lebih banyak berhubungan dengan linguistik historis daripada linguistik sinkronis, dengan analisis yang mendalam tentang berbagai bahasa Indo-Eropa dan bukan dengan teori umum yang menjadikannya ia sekarang terkenal.

Padahal, walaupun Saussure menghasilkan karyanya tentang teori linguistik secara umum pada sekitar 1890 (Koerner, 1973 : 29), tampaknya ia segan memberikannya pada orang lain, dan kisah bagaimana gagasan-gagasannya dapat masuk ke penerbitan merupakan cerita yang aneh. Pada akhir tahun 1906 ia diminta untuk mengambil alih tanggung jawab dalam memberikan kuliah tentang linguistik umum dan sejarah serta perbandingan bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropa dari seorang sarjana yang telah berhenti dari dinasnya selama 30 tahun; Saussure mengajarkan bahan itu pada sisa masa kuliahnya dan pada kuliah-kuliah tahun 1908-1909 dan tahun 1910-1911. Pada tahun-tahun yang pertama Saussure membatasi kuliahnya hanya tentang hal-hal sejarah; tetapi ketika ia memberikan pada tahun-tahun yang kedua ia memasukkan juga pengantar singkat tentang linguistik sinkronis, dan pada kuliah yang ketiga, seluruh semester digunakan untuk memberikan teori linguistik sinkronis. Tak lama sesudah itu ia meninggal, tanpa sempat menerbitkan bahan teori yang manapun. Beberapa orang telah pernah memintanya untuk menerbitkan, tapi ia selalu menjawab bahwa untuk menyusun bahan-bahan kuliahnya sangat menyita waktu, tetapi dua orang rekannya, Charles Bally dan Albert Sechehaye memutuskan untuk menyusun bahan-bahan tadi dari catatan kuliah para mahasiswa bersama-sama dengan catatan kuliah yang ditinggalkan Saussure. Buku yang mereka hasilkan yaitu berjudul Cours de linguistique gererale (Saussure 1916) merupakan suatu media yang dapat digunakan oleh sarjana di dunia untuk memahami pemikiran Saussure, dank arena dokumen inilah Saussure dikenal sebagai bapak ahli linguistik abad XX.

  

SAUSSURE: LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL FACT

Towards the end of the XIX century - apparently everything looks good for the time, and some still remain convincing for the present - the language similarities with biology has been widely rejected . This raises the difficulty of understanding the language as an academic discipline : If the language is not the species alive , in the sense of whether the language is " stuff " that can be investigated ? A layman pleased that the French language is something that can be learned , which have certain devices and in some cases the same or similar to English but in other respects different ; but when the French language in an item and that item is something strange . It is clear that the language was not a concrete object such as a table or as a stretch of land called France . You can not see or hear the French language . You can hear is Gaston the waiter said " pas si bete ... " : You can see a line of printed letters on a sheet of newspaper " Le Monde " : but how can we interpret a being called the French language which is behind thousands and thousands of concrete phenomena that can be observed as in the two examples that? kind of form is that language ? paradigm of biology shows the relationship between the speech and language of France such as the relationship between carrot ( carrot ) and certain species of carrots : and to the rejection of the biological paradigm opinion , such opinion this is considered satisfactory - although one can only see or eat carrots , vote important enough to talk about carrots species and discuss , say , genetic relationship with species of potatoes . , but the first time biology has been thrown to the side of the road , the second , the already found that paradigm can not provide a complete answer to the ongoing discussion . In biology , because the species is an abstraction , not least the individual species are goods that are concrete , some kinds of goods can be easily felt than carrots . But the linguistic analogy to biological individual is idiolek ; and almost all , if not all , the same as a broad abstraction of the concept of language . We can not hear idiolek Gaston as a form ; we can only hear the idiolek examples - comments which he says that he saw a tip that we left behind , and examples idiolek it does not have parallels in biology . So although it is not regarded as a particular problem by linguists of the nineteenth century , the question " How does understanding a form called a language or a dialect of the underlying reality that can be felt rather than specific utterances ? Remain open at that time . People who answer that can satisfy experts as well as experts during her today is the Swiss scholar : Ferdinand de Saussure .
MONGIN Ferdinand de Saussure , his full name , was born in Geneva in 1857 , the son of the Huguenot families who moved from Lorraine during the French religious wars in the late sixteenth century . Although people now regard as the first Saussure provides a definition of the notion that so-called synchronic linguistics - the study of language support as the system contained in the given time , which is distinguished by historical linguistics ( which to distinguish Saussure called diachronic linguistics ) is for experts contemporaries is the only approach available for studying that time was - in his lifetime was not meant to make it famous . Saussure got educated as an ancient language , and successfully while still a young man published a book entitled Memoire sur lesysteme primitive dans les langues des Voyelles indo - europeennes ( 1878) . The book was published a few weeks after his birthday XXI : When he was a student in Germany . The book is one of the basic reconstruction of Proto- Indo- European language . Saussure gives Ecole Pratique des Hautes lecture Etudes in Paris from 1881 to 1891, before he returned to teaching in Geneva , all publishing , and almost all the lectures he gave , throughout his more than dealing with historical linguistics synchronic linguistics , with in-depth analysis about the various Indo- European languages ​​and not with the general theory that makes it famous now .
In fact , although Saussure produce his work on the theory of general linguistics at about 1890 ( Koerner , 1973: 29 ) , he seems reluctant to give it to someone else , and the story of how his ideas can go into publishing is a strange story . In late 1906 he was asked to take over responsibility in giving lectures on general linguistics and comparative history and languages ​​of the Indo - European from a scholar who has quit his service for 30 years ; Saussure taught the material on the rest of her student days and on the lectures in 1908-1909 and in 1910-1911 . In the first years of Saussure limit at only about historical matters ; but when he gave the two years he was also a brief introduction to post a synchronic linguistics , and the third lecture , the entire semester is used to provide synchronous linguistic theory . Shortly afterward he died , without a chance to publish any material that theory . Some people have been asked to publish , but he always answered that for preparing lecture materials very time-consuming , but two of his colleagues , Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye decided on a new fabric of the student lecture notes together with notes Saussure left college . The book they produced is called Cours de linguistique gererale ( Saussure 1916) is a medium that can be used by scholars in the world to understand the ideas of Saussure , Saussure and since this document is known as the father of twentieth -century linguist .

The Caves

Netherlands and Japanese Cave is a historical relic. Both caves are located in Park Ir.H.Djuanda, Dago, Bandung. Netherlands cave built during the Dutch colonial period. Cave was once used by the Dutch to the hideout and resting place of the Dutch soldiers. Japanese Cave was the same as Netherlands cave, Japanese cave was used for hiding and resting place. Japanese cave built there during the Japanese occupation.

Distance between Japanese and the Netherlands caves are not too far apart, probably about 1 km away. Netherlands cave possessed only one aisle, so that from one end of the hall to the other end of the hall can be seen. Although only having 1 hall, Netherlands cave in the hallway it has many branches and inside is very dark and quite creepy. In the Netherlands cave, the weather was cold. Netherlands cave from the beginning until now undergoing changes, so now looks well and neat. And about the Japanese cave, it has a lot of hallway about 4 corridors. From each aisle has several branches and each branch of it combines to-4 cave passage Japan. The temperature inside the Japanese cave was pretty cool. If we compared with the Netherland cave, Japanese cave, which has a smaller magnitude compared to Netherlands cave. But the atmosphere inside Japanese cave is Darker than Netherlands cave.

Both caves are situated in the middle of the forest outside the cave so the view is very beautiful. There are many tall trees and a green leafy, so it looks so beautiful. To enter the second cave, we had to bring typesetter lamps for lighting, because inside the cave there is no lighting at all. But if it does not bring a flashlight, no need to worry about could not get into the cave, because in each of the halls of the cave are available leasing space flashlight.
Netherlands and Japanese cave have historical value which important enough to know by all Indonesian people, because at the time of construction the second cave Indonesian people who built it. They are employed by force without any wages at all. First, life is full of suffering people of Indonesia as with the invaders. In the darkness of Netherlands and Japanese caves, there is a puzzle. It is said, according to the surrounding communities in both the cave in it had collected the bodies of the people of Indonesia and the Netherlands. But until now, the rooms were used for hoarding unknown corps. According to the people around the room has been closed by the Dutch soldiers, so it becomes a puzzle.

To find out some more about Goa and Goa Netherlands Japan, it does not hurt, if you fill your spare time with visiting both the cave. In addition, you will enjoy a panoramic view of the past, you can also find other historical values.

1.      Japanese cave was used for hiding and resting place.

Using passive (simple past) because this is a reported article, we aren’t able to use active sentence to indicate something which is not directly reported, and it is using passive simple past to indicate the action in the past

2.      Japanese cave built there during the Japanese occupation.

Using past tense because the Javanese cave was built in the past time.

3.      no need to worry about could not get into the cave,

Using to infinitive because there is word “need” before worry which is indicate that worry must have using to infinitive instead of gerund.


article from : google.com

Top 25 grammar and language mistakes

Spelling
1. Writing “then” when you mean “than.” The first is a description of time—“I wrote the sales letter and then I wrote the advertisement”—while the other is used when making a comparison—“I am more sick of this picky client than you are!”
2. Misspelling “bated breath.” If you write baited breath, everyone will suspect fishing is your favorite hobby. The word should be spelled bated, which comes from abated, meaning held.
3. Using “accidently” instead of “accidentally.” There are quite a few words with -ally suffixes (“incidentally”), and these should not be confused with words having -ly suffixes (“independently”). Accidently makes it into some dictionaries but it’s regarded as a variant. It’s wise to avoid variants if you can, because some people will become more concerned about your spelling than what you’re selling.
4. Writing that something has “peaked your interest.” We’re not talking mountain climbing here. The correct word is piqued.
5. Confusing “racked” with “wracked.” If you are racked with nerves, you are feeling as if you are being stretched on the torture device, the rack. You rack your brain when you try to write difficult stories. Wrack, on the other hand, has to do with ruinous accidents. With luck, this won’t apply to your writing, but it might just apply to the stock market, which has been wracked by recession.


Word usage
6. Confusing “into” with “in to.” The word into is a preposition (a linking word) that answers the question, where? “Donna walked into her office before noticing her CEO was sitting at her desk.” Note that the “where” needn’t always be a physical place—Donna could also “go into business” or “go into graduate school.” But, on those occasions where in and to just happen to end up beside each other, they must remain separate words. For example, “Peter walked in to see his supervisor.”
7. Misusing “literally.” If your boss said, “I literally felt like firing the entire department,” would you think she really meant that? No! She meant it metaphorically. Small comfort, I know, but help her retain at least a few well-trained staff by stopping her from ever using literally unless it’s the actual (literal) truth.
8. Confusing “edition” with “addition.” I know both words sound alike, but they mean totally different things. An edition is the form in which a text (usually a book) is printed, an issue of a newspaper or magazine or a version of something that’s a little different from the ordinary (for example, an experimental edition of a play). Addition, on the other hand, is what you do when you add up numbers (1 + 1 = 2), when there is an increase (“there was an addition to our taxes this year”) or when you expand your house (“the addition of the deck increased the value of our house significantly”).
9. Saying you made a 360-degree turn, when you changed direction. I’ve had many (otherwise bright) bosses say they made a 360-degree turn when they meant that they turned around completely. But think about it: If you turn around so that you’re facing in the opposite direction, you’ve actually made a 180-degree turn.
10. Being redundant. Repeat after me: PIN stands for personal identification number. Therefore, you cannot say PIN number without being redundant. Similarly, CD-ROM stands for “compact disc, read-only memory,” DVD stands for digital video disc or digital versatile disc and ATM stands for automated teller machine. Thus, don’t repeat the word disc or machine. Furthermore, never describe your “favorite pet peeve.” Stick with “pet peeve” alone. “Personal favorite” is another noxious phrase. Can you ever imagine an impersonal favorite?
11. Failing to understand the difference between “hone” and “home.” To hone is to sharpen. You can hone a point but you home in on a target. This is why they don’t call those birds “honing pigeons!”
12. Saying something is a “mute point” instead of “moot.” Moot means open to discussion or debatable. Mute means silent. Much as we all might appreciate more mute points, they’re not only ineffective, they’re also incorrect.
13. Using “centered around.” Think about that phrase for a second. How could anything be centered around something else? The correct phrase is “centered on.”
14. The inability to distinguish between “e.g.” and “i.e.” The abbreviation e.g. is Latin for “exempli gratia” meaning “for example”. The abbreviation i.e., on the other hand, stands for the Latin “id est” meaning “that is to say.” So, you might write, “We like vegetables—e.g., broccoli, green beans and cauliflower.” Or you might write, “We like all vegetables—i.e., we’re healthy eaters.”
15. Misusing the word “penultimate.” This word means second to last: November is the penultimate month of the year. It does not mean “super-ultimate” (e.g., “He’s the penultimate father” is incorrect).
16. Using “irregardless.” While irregardless does appear in some dictionaries, it’s always listed as “non-standard.” That’s because it’s meaningless. The “ir” cancels out the “regardless.” Stick with plain old regardless.
17. Confusing “flush it out” with “flesh it out.” To flesh out an idea is to give it substance. But if you’re trying to drive a criminal, an injustice or bad behavior out into the open, you want to flush it out.


Grammar
18. Using“could of,” “would of,” “should of.” These are all 100 percent wrong, born of our sloppy speaking styles—could’ve, would’ve, should’ve. What you want to write is could have, would have, should have. We all coulda, woulda, shoulda become better at grammar.
19. Using “me and somebody.” I tell my children that it’s common courtesy to put the other person first. Thus you should always say, “Fred and I went to the gym together,” or “Suzie and I saw that movie.”
20. Using “that” instead of “who” (and vice versa). If you’re writing about people, always use who. If a company president says, “employees that are affected by layoffs will be greatly missed,” no one is likely to believe him because he’s treating them as objects by using the word that.
21. Using “they” when referring to a business. “Starbucks said they would give everyone a free latte today.” Although this might sound right, the correct sentence is: “Starbucks said it would give everyone a free latte today.” And if that grates on your ears, then rewrite the sentence to avoid the problem: “Starbucks is offering everyone a free latte today.”


Style
22. Using “orient” and “orientate” in the same piece of text. Both words are correct, meaning to determine one’s position with reference to another point or to familiarize (someone) with new surroundings or circumstances. That said, the latter choice is British and widely considered “incorrect” in the U.S. Bottom line: If you spell theater (rather than theatre), you should also use orient.
23. Using “toward” and “towards” interchangeably. Both words are correct, but again, the latter is British and the former is American. Which you choose depends on your audience. And whatever you do, be consistent.


Apostrophes
24. Using “it’s” when you mean “its.” This is a mistake I see every day—whether on the Web or in print. The rule is so breathtakingly simple that everyone should learn it’s stands for it is. The possessive version, “The dog chewed on its bone,” somehow prompts people to throw in an errant apostrophe. Whenever I see it’s, I always reread the sentence to ensure the correct meaning is it is. And when I see its, I reread the sentence to ensure it doesn’t mean it is.
25. Using a random apostrophe. Is there a worse mistake than “The photo’s are for sale at 50 percent off”? Remember, apostrophes are used only in two cases: to signify a letter has been omitted (in “it’s” it represents the missing “i” from the word “is”) and to signify possession (“The dog’s dish of water was spilled by the anxious owner”).


Source: http://www.prdaily.com/Main/Articles/Top_25_grammar_and_language_mistakes_10475.aspx

Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Berbantuan Komputer

Tugas 1 Kelompok 1 Active and Passive Voice Sumber : Betty Schrampfer Azar's book and http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples/examples-of-active-and-passive-voice.html

Order Letter/ Surat Pemesanan Barang

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